Psychological Issues & Competition Pressure

Flint Nillichamp (made up name to protect the innocent) appears to have some psychological issues during competition. He cracks under pressure and is not able to apply what he does in training to what he needs to do to perform well in competition. Certain changes need to be made in Flint’s training program so that he can perform well in competition...

More Visual Feedback - Although Flint responded well to verbal cues Flint is predominantly a visual learner. Therefore feedback and instruction must be given in a more visual way by use of demonstrations. These demonstrations can be made by the coach, another diver or by use of a full-speed video playback system. Using a slow motion video playback system will have a negative effect on his temporal comprehension and will make timing errors in his dives. Both cognitive mediation theory and the dynamic view of modelling both theorise the benefit of demonstration of skills. Cognitive mediation theory suggests that when a person observes a skilled model, the person translates the observed movement information into a cognitive code that the person stores in memory and uses when the observer performs the skill (Magill, 2007). The dynamic view of modelling proposes that the visual system is capable of automatically processing the observed movement in a way that constrains the motor control system to act accordingly, so that the person does not need to engage in cognitive mediation (Magill, 2007). An experiment by Schoenfelder-Zohdi (1992) proves the effectiveness of demonstrations. Subjects were asked to practice a ski slalom simulator task. Half the subjects watched a demonstration and the other half did not. The participants who had seen the demonstration developed the necessary coordination much quicker than those that didn’t.

Frequency of Feedback - The timing and frequency of feedback of Flint’s performances in training needs to change. Currently feedback is given after almost every practice trial. This will have detrimental effects on Flint’s learning as according to the guidance hypothesis if feedback is given too frequently it can cause the learner to become dependent on its availability. Also, Weeks and Andersons’s experiment (2000) shows that multiple demonstrations before performance leads to both better form and better accuracy. Circuit training in the diving pool or dryland can incorporate this infrequent feedback. Stations can be set up around the pool or dryland where certain skills can be practised over a certain amount of time or number of repetitions. The coach can intervene every now and then to give feedback but not after every performance. Also Flint can go through his dive lists in a similar way to Weeks and Anderson’s experiment where the coach will give the same demonstration a few times along with some feedback to think about when performing his dive then allow Flint to perform this dive 5 times or so and then the coach can intervene with demonstrations and feedback and let Flint attempt 5 more repetitions.

Practice Variation - It is important to make sure there is a lot of variation in Flint’s training. In the past he was exposed to very little variation. While constant block practise may have less errors during training as opposed to practice variability an abundance of research proves that practice variability not only improves retention but also in transfer of skills. Experiments by Shea and Kohl (1990, 1991) as well as one by Shoenfelt, Snyder, Maue, McDowell, & Woolard (2002) are examples of such research. The experiments in 1990 and 1991 show that when attempting to use 175N of force to press a handle the variability group that practised pushing different amounts of force (none of which included 175N) performed better on the retention/transfer test than the group that practised a constant 175N of force for 289 trials. In the 2002 experiment participants practised shooting basketball free throws. The results also show that the variability group that took shots from everywhere except the free throw line performed better in retention/transfer tests than the constant group that only took shots from the free throw line. The variance in the training of skills is consistent with the contextual interference effect where there is a learning benefit from performing multiple skills in a high contextual interference practice schedule. There are many drills in diving training where Flint can be exposed to lots of variation. One example is to perform each dive along a skill chain up to the point where his skills allow and then go back down the skill chain. That is, for example, forward dive, forward somersault, forward 1.5 somersaults, forward 2 somersaults, forward 2.5 somersaults etc, and then going back down from multiple somersaults back to forward dive again. Another example of some variation is to attempt to perform dives making them short of vertical, vertical and then over of vertical. This variation allows the diver to understand and adjusting their angle of entry into the water. Circuit training in point 2 above also allows for variation where the diver can perform up to 50 different skills in one session.

Practice Specificity - It is also important to complement the practice variability training with practice specificity. Flint’s training should incorporate scenarios that are similar or identical to his competition experience. When competition scenarios are incorporated into training the diver learns about the competition context when the dive is practised automatically without being explicitly instructed to do so. Also the cognitive processes that occur in the competition scenarios in training that is required in real competition will be learnt. Flint will therefore learn how to deal with the pressure of competition during training and will therefore be able to transfer more successfully what he learns in training in to competition. An experiment by Pellacchia (2005) demonstrates this. Two groups had to try to balance for 30 seconds on a specially designed balance platform. The first group only concentrated on trying to balance properly (single-task) where as the second group had to try and balance properly and count backwards by threes (dual-task). When both groups performed a transfer test a week later with the dual-task condition it was the dual-task group that performed better proving that the cognitive processing demands imposed by the dual-task training became learnt. There are many different ways in diving where a diver can be put into a pressure situation just like in a diving competition where the cognitive demands are higher. On the spot performance is one example where the diver is asked to perform a dive to a certain degree of success without any practice or lead up prior. Going through their list of dives at one a piece to perform a certain score or better is another way to increase the pressure of training. Another way of increasing the pressure of training is to divide the training group into teams to perform in a competition-like situation. This way the diver has the pressure of not only performing well for them self but also for their team mates.

Feedback Characteristics - The characteristics of feedback given to Flint also needs to change in his new training program. The quantity of instructions needs to be kept to a minimum as we don’t want to overwhelm Flint with too much information. The verbal instructions also need to direct attention on movement outcomes rather than the step-by-step movements within the skill. This action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997) proposes that actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects. A prescriptive knowledge of performance is needed in feedback so that the diver can understand the errors they have made as well what needs to be done to correct them. Also the diver needs to be able to put this information into context in order to be able to successfully make the necessary changes and consolidate that positive change in technique. When a diver discovers something for them self they will be more likely to hold on to that technique and remember it for next time. For example a beginner diver will discover for themselves how to do a forward dive tuck better if you tell them to jump, grab their legs and land upside down on their head than if you told them to stand tall, push out of their legs, lift their hips, make a tuck shape, rotate, grab their hands and stretch towards the water.

Distributed Practice & Overlearning - The amount and duration of Flint’s training also needs to be scheduled differently. Currently, Flint trains only twice a week in 3 hour blocks. This is definitely not enough to be an elite diver. Evidence points to the benefit of distributed practise (Magill, 2007). To be an elite diver at the top level and also to be competitive on the world scene divers should be training around 20-25 hours a week. This means that Flint shouldn’t be training for 5 hours straight a day, 6 days a week. If Flint is serious in his motivation to develop his skills and to be one of the best in the world in diving his practice will need to increase to at least 25 hours a week with 2 hours each morning and 2-3 hours each afternoon with Saturday afternoon and Sundays as rest.

Diving is such a precise and technical sport which is the reason why so many hours need to be put in. There are so many skills involved where just a few hours a week will not suffice. The best divers are the ones who can consolidate their skills the fastest and move on to more advanced skills and consolidate those. A well established way in diving to consolidate skills is through overlearning. Overlearning is the continuation of practice beyond the amount necessary for a satisfactory performance criteria (Magill, 2007). The U.S. Army Research Institute (Schendel & Hagman, 1982) used overlearning strategies to increased the likelihood that soldiers would remember how to disassemble and reassemble their machine guns. The soldiers that overlearned performed better in retention tests than those that used no overlearning. It is an important not that even though overlearning can benefit skill consolidation there is also a point of diminishing returns where learning deficits may occurs as a result of too many extra practice trials (Magill, 2007). The coach must take care to provide an overlearning environment but also to make sure that there is still enough practice variation (as mentioned earlier) to reduce the risk of diminishing returns. This is where correct and appropriate characteristics in augmented feedback as well as practise variability and specificity takes place to create the most efficient and optimal learning (and consolidating) learning environment for the diver.

Conclusion
To be the best diver Flint can be and to achieve his long-term goals of being one of the top divers in the world it is important to expose him to an optimal and efficient training environment. Flint must receive correct and appropriate augmented feedback that is appropriate to his best learning abilities. Flint must receive many demonstrations to satisfy visually dominated learning style. As Flint also responds well to verbal feedback it is also important that the instructions he receives is in line with the action effect hypothesis. Both visual and verbal feedback must be kept to a minimum in order to not overwhelm his cognitive processes as well as staying in line with the guidance hypothesis.
The way Flint trains also needs to be efficient using practice variability and complementing it with practice specificity. This way he can not only retain his skills at a high standard though contextual interference but he will also be able to handle the pressure of competition as the cognitive processes will have already been learnt at training.
Finally, Flint must increase his training hours but these hours must be distributed evenly throughout the week. This will allow overlearning to occur also having a positive effect on his retention of skills and therefore the ability to increase their difficulty once they are consolidated. Flint’s coach must also take care not to over-overlearn Flint as this will not be efficient due to the effect of diminishing returns.

References
Magill, Richard A. (2007). Motor Learning And Control. Concepts and Applications. (Eight Edition). McGraw-Hill.
Schoenfelder-Zohdi, B. G. (1992). Investigating the informational nature of a modeled visual demonstration. Ph.D. dissertation, Louisiana State University.
Weeks , D. L., & Anderson, L. P. (2000). The interaction of observational learning with overt practice: Effects on motor skill learning. Acta Psychologica, 104, 259-271.
Shea, C. H., & Kohl, R. M., (1990). Specificity and variability of practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 169-177.
Shea, C. H., & Kohl, R. M., (1991). Composition of practice: Influence on the retention of motor skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 187-195.
Schoenfelt, E. L., Snyder, L. A., Maue, A. E., McDowell, C. P., & Woolard, C. D., (2002). Comparison of constant and variable practice conditions on free-throw shooting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 1113-1123.
Pellacchia, G. L., (2005). Dual-task training reduces impact of cognitive task on postural sway. Journal of Motor Behaviour, 37, 239-246.
Prinz, W. (1997). Perception and action planning. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 9, 129-154.
Schendel, J. D., & Hagman, J. D., (1982). On sustaining procedural skills over a prolonged retention interval. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 605-610.